His Last Journey to the West : Introduction to The Complete Wu Cheng’en Omnibus

In the 96th year of the Qìngyáng era, July, Clan Wu, the largest family in the Jiangnan region, once again embarked on the compilation of their genealogy. Unlike the routine decennial genealogy updates, this time representatives from various branches gathered for a singular purpose: to decide the fate of one individual.

This person, bearing the name Wu Cheng’en, had been exiled from the family since the founding year of the Jìngníng era for treason. However, everything changed with a single imperial decree, which praised him for his literary contributions, enumerated his lifelong achievements, posthumously honored him with the title of “Nobleman of Knowledge and Loyalty”, and ordered Clan Wu to recommend a worthy talent to travel to the capital on an auspicious day to complete the revisions of Cheng’en unfinished work, The History of Longevity. Such recognition was nearly unprecedented in history—two generations later, the descendants of the once-fallen Cao family would only barely achieve comparable success.

What elevated Wu Cheng’en to such prominence was his magnum opus, Journey to the West, a work that consumed his entire life. Like other “pearls of literature”, the creation of Journey to the West was anything but ordinary. Unlike the collaborative effort of dozens in compiling The Classic of Mountains and Seas or the intense, single-handed endeavor behind The Story of the Jade, Wu Cheng’en spent his life voraciously reading, traveling across the country, and gradually crafting six drastically different editions of his tale. These stories, though stemming from the same core, took on distinct forms, with their themes and subjects evolving progressively. Beginning as a popular tale of supernatural adventures, the work eventually got enriched into an epic that resonated with people across the empire.

Unlike the anonymous works of the pre-Qin period, when assessing the value of post-Han literary works, one must consider the author’s life as part of the analysis. The consistency between the author’s life and their work, however, often depends on archaeological findings. This is perhaps the most fitting approach to analyzing Journey to the West, for Wu Cheng’en not only created a widely celebrated literary classic but also, in some way, reflected the literary and social trajectory of the entire Xia dynasty. As Sima Qian noted in his Records of the Grand Historian: “With the rise and fall of the Qin and Han dynasties, in times of peace, if a man lives as long as his country, then he will be the embodiment of that era”. One must admit that this prophecy holds remarkable foresight, and what follows will demonstrate why Wu Cheng’en is the perfect embodiment of this insight.

From the Epang Palace to The Exorcism at Dongshan

Wu Cheng’en was born into a merchant family in the Jianghuai region, ranking third among his siblings.

The Wu family had once been a family of officials for generations, but it fell into decline during his father’s generation. The two elder brothers of Wu Cheng’en had both died young, so his father, Wu Rui, placed great expectations on him, even naming him “Cheng’en”, meaning to “bear the emperor’s grace”, hoping that his son would become a scholarcrat, serving the people under the emperor’s favor.

The Wu family primarily produced sucklings24, and due to their exceptional craftsmanship, they were highly appreciated by the imperial court. After receiving official permits, the family business flourished over time. By the time Wu Cheng’en came of age, his family had joined forces with two other local families to form a complete chain of production, transportation, and sales. His father’s expectations, along with the family’s commercial background, set the stage for Wu Cheng’en’s future. He lived up to these supports, not only by immersing himself in the study of ancient texts but also by actively participating in the family business. On one hand, “as a child, he gained literary fame along the Huai River”; on the other, after observing the production process of bloodletting instruments, he took inspiration from the cupping therapy in clinics to propose the “hollow (vacuum) tube suction” method, greatly improving bloodletting efficiency.

Wu Cheng’en’s passion for mythical tales and unofficial histories began during a journey upstream along the Yangtze River. In the Xia dynasty’s political system, to serve as a court official, one had to pass basic examinations and obtain recommendations from at least three provincial governors. Therefore, starting in the 113th year of the Qiánhuà era, Wu Rui made several trips by boat to visit friends, seeking opportunities for such endorsements.

On their second journey westward, the father and his son passed through Mount Li. Here, Wu Cheng’en saw the ruins of the Epang Palace for the first time. Emperor Qin Shi Huang began constructing this grand palace, the largest in the world, in the 35th year of his reign after Xu Fu brought back the elixir of immortality. Expanded gradually during the Han and Wei dynasties, the palace eventually spanned over 1,700 li25, bridging the continent in four directions and casting shadows that blotted out the sun. Although the architectural complex was burned to ashes during the wars between the Wei and Tang dynasties, its imposing ruins deeply impressed Wu Cheng’en. Standing before this colossal skeleton, he could feel time and space breathing through him.

To restore the lives of those from the past, concise historical records often fall short. On the contrary, stories passed down through generations, despite their divergence from orthodoxy, vividly bring people and events to life. From this point on, Wu Cheng’en’s knowledge split into two directions: the real and the imagined. He was well-versed in history and literature, and after many late-night conversations with his father, he resolved to become a historian, dedicating himself to his studies. Simultaneously, he was captivated by the biographies of Tang writers like Niu Qizhang and Duan Kegu, admiring their vivid portrayal of human emotions, and he aspired to create a work of his own in the same spirit. From The Classic of Mountains and Seas, he learned about the interconnections between geography, flora, fauna, and society; from Zhuangzi and Laozi, he grasped how to weave allegories. By the time he reached his thirties, Wu Cheng’en’s literary skills and historical knowledge far surpassed those of his peers.

In the 119th year of Qiánhuà, Wu Rui secured a promise from the Prefect of Jingzhou. As long as Wu Cheng’en submitted a written work that met the Prefect’s approval, he would qualify for recommendation to the court. To this end, Wu Cheng’en prepared two works: a discursive essay titled Miscellaneous Essays on the Rural Factions, and a novel based on the former, extolling the merits of the previous dynasty’s suppression of rebellions. This novel, The Exorcism at Dongshan, became the precursor to Journey to the West.

In Miscellaneous Essays on the Rural Factions, Wu Cheng’en examined the unrest that occurred at the end of the Qin dynasty, focusing on population, foreign affairs, and the official selection system. “Though the First Emperor achieved the long life of Peng Zu26, his blood-drinking and youth-preserving practices were unnatural and unacceptable to the people. Therefore, he gathered civil and military officials and shared the method of immortality with them. Prefects and county magistrates were appointed, and land taxes were replaced by a blood tax”. Wu Cheng’en argued that the local autonomy in the official selection process led to a decentralization of power, allowing the immortality practices to spread into the countryside during the late Qin. Coupled with the harsh central government’s policies, this eventually triggered the widespread uprisings that toppled the empire. By the Han dynasty, the central government rectified these issues by eliminating rural factions, encouraging population growth, adjusting tax policies, and implementing the system of talent inspection and recruitment.

The Exorcism at Dongshan, however, abandoned such discourses and focused on a water monster named Wuzhiqi27 as the primary antagonist in a tale of heavenly upheaval. The novel was divided into two parts: “The Birth of the Monkey King” and “The Heavenly Rebellion”. Wuzhiqi was a spirit that emerged from a sacred stone on Dongshan, mischievous by nature and unchanged even after learning from a master. After his failed submission to the heavens, he wreaked havoc in the celestial realm, escaped to the mortal world, and established his own stronghold. The protagonist, Xiang Gongming, was Wuzhiqi’s fellow disciple, who ascended to the heavens after many trials, became a soldier in the celestial army, and ultimately led the forces to defeat the rebels28.

While the plot of The Exorcism at Dongshan is undoubtedly exciting, the extant fragments of the novel reveal an overemphasis on Xiang Gongming’s side. Wuzhiqi, portrayed as a grotesque creature with a red face and fangs, wreaked havoc in the heavens just for fun, and the battle to defeat him focused too heavily on Xiang Gongming’s contribution, despite his low rank. This restrained the whole story to reach a grander vision. Compared to other contemporary popular works like The Romance of Hanzhong and Tales of a Hundred Demons, The Exorcism at Dongshan undoubtedly fell short of this perspective. Furthermore, although the novel bore the intention of satire, the flaws of the system as criticized in Miscellaneous Essays on the Rural Factions were not effectively addressed in it. In terms of literary achievement, this debut work was not a success, but its importance lies in laying the foundation for Journey to the West.

In the spring of the 120th year of Qiánhuà era, Wu Cheng’en submitted Miscellaneous Essays on the Rural Factions to the Prefect of Jingzhou. Around the same time, he began paying attention to another major historical event—the journey to the west by the monk Xuanzang. After reading the essay, the Prefect praised Wu Cheng’en highly. The path to the imperial court reopened for the Wu family. Though not a direct entry—Wu Cheng’en would still have to undergo training and exams —the family nonetheless celebrated this honor. They lit lanterns and held a grand banquet on a sandbank along the Huai River. This glorious achievement was recorded in the family genealogy during their family meeting.

That year, Wu Cheng’en was only 27 years old.

Xuanzang’s Journey for Scriptures: From the Expedition to the Journey Westward

The recommendation was only the first step in becoming an official. What awaited Wu Cheng’en was the long road to further studies.

During this time, Wu completed the sequel to The Exorcism at Dongshan, titled The Grand Expedition Westward. Despite referencing different historical events, the two works share many similarities. Their major distinction lies in the more vivid and lifelike depiction of the elixir of immortality in the latter novel. Moreover, its narrative is also more substantial.

This shift reflected Wu Cheng’en’s personal experiences. According to contemporary laws, the method of immortality was imparted to students during their academy entrance ceremony, through a ritual involving blood exchange. Upon completion, students were expected to overcome various physical and mental challenges associated with prolonged life as part of their studies. Wu Cheng’en meticulously recorded his experience in Ru Zhong Diaries: “My hearing was sharper, my vision clearer, my mind sober and my breath smooth, and any bruises or injuries would heal in a matter of moments, yet I had to consume two liangs of fresh blood every day, as if consuming the stench of copper… and I feared the light, sunlight most of all. I lived by night and hid by day, and when forced to walk in daylight, I wore a heavy black armor, which was cumbersome and quite inconvenient”. Of all the effects, the reversal of his sleep schedule and sensitivity to sunlight were the most agonizing: “I once studied through the night without sleep, only to forget everything by the next day, earning myself twenty lashes as punishment, much to the amusement of my classmates…”

The methods to overcome these challenges were derived from Buddhist scriptures, which aligned closely with Wu’s academic focus at the time. During his research, he compared Buddhist texts such as The Śūraṅgama Sūtra and The Lotus Sutra with historical accounts like The Tang History, The Wei Chronicles, and Records Beyond the Borders. Through personal experimentation, he classified the flaws of the immortality method into two categories: psychological and physiological. The reversal of the sleep schedule and sensitivity to sunlight, both categorized as physiological defects, were intimately linked29.

During his studies, Wu also met Song Yi, a young scholar from another family of officials. The two shared similar interests, and Wu presented Song with the manuscript of The Grand Expedition Westward. After reading only a few pages, Song was captivated, immersing himself in it day and night. Eventually, the two decided to combine Miscellaneous Theories on the Wild Factions with The Grand Expedition Westward to write a historical account of the evolution of the immortality method as their joint graduation project. This endeavor would require them to study classical texts and conduct field research. Under the guidance of Ge Mu, the academy’s administrator, they decided to limit their investigation to the Jiānghuái region, where transportation was convenient, to ensure they could meet their deadline.

Ge Mu, who was serving as the magistrate of Huai’an at the time, assigned a bodyguard to accompany and protect them. This bodyguard was a silent and disciplined warrior monk known by the dharma name Yuanzhong. In contrast, Song Yi loved to indulge in life’s pleasures, particularly savoring local delicacies30. According to Mei Zhen’s Biography of the Wu Family of Gaodian, these two individuals would later inspire the characters Sha Wujing and Zhu Wuneng from Journey to the West.

As their research progressed, Wu and Song gradually realized that their previous theories were overly detached from reality. During the transition from the Qin to Han dynasties, the Jiānghuái region was fraught with turmoil, and many local officials who had previously pledged allegiance to the Qin regime declared independence. According to local records, during this period, political ideologies derived from the immortality method were as varied and numerous as those of the Warring States period, with even more radical theories promoting the rule of commoners over scholarcrats31.

On their third trip to the southern Jiangnan region, Wu began to see the chaotic strife among warlords as far more perilous than the grand expedition described in The Grand Expedition Westward, where Xuanzang’s pilgrimage to the West was portrayed as a safe and sheltered procession, with an entourage of envoys and guards marching westward, launching victorious conquests along the way. Nevertheless, while recognizing that the long peace under Emperor Ming limited his imagination, Wu Cheng’en was not disheartened. Instead, he discovered a new path of romance and grandeur.

On their journey back, as the boat sailed past Hexu County, Wu Cheng’en shared with Song Yi his new vision—abandon the notion of a grand expedition and replace it with a quest to explore the unknown. The story would begin after the havoc in heaven—for Wuzhiqi, it would be a journey of his redemption. Then, it would lead to Xuanzang’s journey—for the Tang dynasty, this would be the bitter quest to return to the sunlight. As they sat in the boat, feeling the morning sun’s warmth cascading down from the mountaintops, the heat and light penetrated even the thick layers of black robes they wore.

Upon returning to the academy, the pair immediately began compiling the data they had gathered. The History of Longevity: Volume Nanhuai, with administrative divisions as its framework, meticulously lists notable figures and significant events in chronological order. Although the events lacked sufficient interconnection, as a student project, it was more than adequate.

Meanwhile, Wu started drafting The Story of a West-Searching Monk. Historically, during the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang, monks in India discovered a method that allowed the nobles to endure sunlight, while the Tang Empire resolved issues related to silverware. Both nations sent their envoys, and the mission of retrieving the Mahayana teachings fell to Xuanzang. Both The Grand Expedition Westward and The Story of a West-Searching Monk were based on this historical event.

The difference between the two works was evident from their titles. In The Story of a West-Searching Monk, Xuanzang was accompanied only by his three disciples, and their identities shifted from natural deities to Buddhist figures. The hardships they faced drew inspiration from The History of Longevity: Volume Nanhuai, transforming into battles against demons and monsters that roamed a vast and enigmatic continent. Their trials became more arduous, thereby magnifying the group’s heroic deeds.

A notable feature of this work was that Wu Cheng’en stepped beyond the typical scholar’s perspective, moving past the elite’s usual self-perception of superiority due to their longevity and rapid healing abilities. Instead, he portrayed a group of travelers trembling in the face of a world filled with uncertainties. While such a portrayal might be commonplace in literature created by commoners, it was a significant breakthrough for Wu Cheng’en and a noteworthy achievement within the realm of scholarcrat-literature.

Unfortunately, the work never reached completion.

In the spring of the 132nd year of the Qiánhuà era, Wu and Song finished compiling their volume of The History of Longevity. Shortly after submitting the manuscript, they received an accepting summons from the capital. The two were ordered to present themselves in Jinling, where they underwent the Great Mahayana Ceremony, formally shedding the heavy armor they had worn for a decade and bathing in the sunlight once again. Wishes were fulfilled. They were appointed to official positions at the imperial historiography office. However, to their surprise, much as the court appreciated their endeavors, instead of letting them move on to the next volume, the next region, they tasked them with the job of reviewing the entire official canon, cross-referencing it with their chronicle as well as other forbidden texts, and deleting any matching content immediately on sight.

 

The Burning Summer: How His Faith Crumbled

 

Although Sima Qian emphasized the unique historical perspective of the scholarcrats in the Records of the Grand Historian, he also integrated historical documents from the pre-Qin and Qin-Han periods to point out that there were many similarities between the historical views of scholarcrats and commoners. The most important point is that even scholarcrats with the longevity of Peng Zu found it difficult to grasp the principles of governance. In the face of a colossal empire, everyone is merely peering through a hole.

During the Xia dynasty, the historical office undertook both historical recording and some educational work, making the position of this department, which should have been isolated from the mundane world, quite delicate. The weight of words was particularly significant here. In the eyes of rulers, a respected educator could also be a disruptive instigator. The History of Longevity itself proves this point. What Wu Cheng’en and Song Yi did not know was that since Ge Mu had approved their history-compiling application, it was under the watch of his superiors32.

Wu naturally could not accept this. He tried the example of the Qi state minister Cui Zhu’s three executions of historians33 to persuade Liu Yun, the head of the historical office at the time, to retract the command. Liu Yun firmly refused. Wu Cheng’en then appealed beyond his immediate superior, but the petition was intercepted by Song Yi. It was only under Song Yi’s patient exhortation that Wu calmed his anger and did not resign in frustration34.

Though the storm subsided, Wu’s dissatisfaction was not entirely quelled. Novel writing became his outlet for expressing his emotions. A Comic Tale of the Heavenly Palace was born during this period, featuring numerous milestone changes. In this book, Wu focused entirely on the “Great Sage Equal to Heaven”, Sun Wukong, during the celestial chaos (the first 15 chapters). The image of Zhu Wuneng, the second disciple of the Tang monk, also changed, no longer being the effective assistant to the elder brother but rather constantly opposing him. The reason for this change was apparent—Song Yi, being adept at handling situations, gained favor from Liu Yun during this period and was promoted to Liu Yun’s direct assistant. And Wu was jealous of his promotion.

Although these changes significantly enhanced the dramatic conflict of the story and introduced an anti-hero, the work was still immature in intent. It was even less successful compared to its predecessor (though Wu had enriched its content by using forbidden books during the historical distortions, which contained supernatural elements far exceeding those in The History of Longevity). Its satirical targets were merely superficial issues like speech control and academic integrity. Similar satirical works were already plentiful out there, with hundreds of related essays from the Jiangling Seven and popular works such as The Yin-Yang Song and To Talk about Illnesses.

On the other hand, negative emotions allowed Wu Cheng’en to reassess some of his previous works. Ironically, though he depicted celestial corruption and internecine strife of Heaven, and the hypocrisy and cruelty of the Buddhist kingdom, he unwittingly created a precise and detailed narrative of magical realism.

This planted the seeds of his misfortune, yet also laid the realistic foundation for his peak of literary accomplishment. From this point on, history began to diverge into multiple dimensions, starting from a diplomatic incident in the 157th year of the Qiánhuà era.

Although the Xia dynasty appeared to be stable on the surface and had survived for over four hundred years under Emperor Ming, this was the result of continuous political maneuvering over seven decades. By Wu Cheng’en’s time, the balance had developed new cracks—Emperor Ming’s mental faculties were deteriorating, and while the imperial princes schemed against each other, the two major official families, the Ouyang and Yang clans, also clashed.

The core of the conflict between these two families was a key national policy on military conscription. The western and northern borders of the Xia were unstable, leading to a complete cessation of foreign exchanges for a long time. On deploying military expeditions, Left Chancellor Ouyang Ning believed that a commoner army should be formed to provide portable provisions, who could also participate in battles if needed. Right Chancellor Yang Xiao believed that more scholarcrats should be recruited into the army to actively engage in foreign expeditions, feeding on civilians from enemy forces35. The dispute between the two sides led to political struggles. As Emperor Ming’s mental state began to deteriorate, the imperial intelligence system also became embroiled in factional disputes.

Wu Cheng’en was keenly interested in this matter as it provided ample material for his writing. The indecisive Jade Emperor, the domineering Queen Mother of the West, and the Grand Supreme Elderly Lord…Tales of the Heavenly Palace gradually evolved into a multi-character story. Initially, under Song Yi’s warning, he briefly ceased writing and burned the manuscript. However, shortly after that, he invented a code, using perforation patterns as indexed for words in The Dictionary. This satirical literary masterpiece was thus created.

Unfortunately, Wu was merely deceiving himself. Ouyang Ning, who wielded power indiscriminately, had already had his spies obtain his encrypted manuscript, and the code was deciphered. Yang Xiao then manipulated Ouyang Ning’s maids to carry out a second theft.

As a custom, historians always refrained from political involvement, focusing solely on recording events. Liu Yun’s dedication to this tradition at all cost, was rooted in his belief that political involvement could lead to widespread consequences, potentially resulting in the destruction of the entire historical office. Liu Yun considered this the highest disrespect to history. Song Yi strongly agreed.

Yet, the situation continued to spiral out of control, and even the historians could not foresee its upcoming courses. Eventually, in July of the year 157 of the Qiánhuà era, the situation broke loose once and for all. A nation known as Da Qin36 crossed half the world and entered the imperial court of Xia.

The appearance of Da Qin caused a huge uproar in the capital. According to The Book of the Early Xia, “Da Qin emissaries were elders with white hair. Curious observers noticed that they were commoners actually. Their sedan chairs were quite unusual, moving without drivers and equipped with four blood-soaked wheels.” Once the envoys entered the court, all officials were shocked—each of the four wheels contained a scholarcrat.

A living example of forbidden history appeared on the court. Emperor Ming enraged, imprisoned the emissaries, and burned their vehicles, but died that night all of a sudden in the East Palace. The crown prince, more like a puppet than his senile father, ascended the throne amidst internal and external turmoil. Yang Xiao immediately submitted a memorial accusing Ouyang Ning of secretly compiling seditious writings to overthrow the government, with evidence found in secret manuscripts in his home.

Although the atmosphere was getting tense, Liu Yun, as the head of the historical office, felt relieved at this point—he chose to ally with Yang’s faction. Song Yi, however, felt the situation was worsening, not only because Liu Yun had demanded him to bet on the opposite side, but also because the seditious writings used as evidence were A Comic Tale of the Heavenly Palace.

With Ouyang Ning on the brink of imprisonment, Song hurriedly returned to the historical office to warn Wu. The situation, however, took a sudden turn. The assassin of Emperor Ming was arrested so fast. Ouyang Ning did not reveal this matter in the court; instead, he framed it on Yang’s faction and informed the Imperial Guards and the ambitious Prince Ding. Under Prince Ding’s testimony and command, the Imperial Guards stormed the palace. The city of Jinling fell into bloodshed overnight. While the Qiánhuà era had lasted for 157 years and seven months, the Chéng’ān era only survived for less than four hours.

Song Yi risked his life to save Wu Cheng’en, whose hideout remained unknown until now. Realizing that the world was about to descend into chaos, Liu Yun began to direct his subordinates to relocate documents while entrusting Song Yi to help escort his family out of the city. When the Imperial Guards raided the historical office, Liu Yun took his own life, with a dagger piercing through his heart.

The foreign emissaries seized the opportunity to escape, and two years later, Da Qin’s army, freed from the servitude of scholars, brought with them an army of heresy. The Xia dynasty fell into a long period of upheaval. Wu Cheng’en, amidst the confusion over all these changes, burned his manuscripts, but it was already too late.

How Wu Cheng’en managed to escape the coup remains unknown. We can only seek clues from existing historical records and piece together fragmentary evidence. According to the latest archaeological findings and historians’ speculations, Song Yi’s role may have gone beyond providing a hiding place. He might have killed one of Liu Yun’s family members while transferring them, thus swapping Wu Cheng’en into the refugees37.

A Comic Tale of the Heavenly Palace became a lever to overturn the Xia dynasty, and the collapse of the dynasty, in turn, crushed Wu Cheng’en’s worldview. Politics turned into a thick fog before his eyes, far more complex than his naive notions of good and evil, and more chaotic and heavier than the corruption he had ridiculed. In some senses, his view of social justice is worth nothing now.

At fifty-four, if everything had gone smoothly, he would have married and started a family six years later. But now, to protect the clan, the Wu family had completely distanced themselves from him. Then, the flames of war crossed the borders, and Da Qin army entered the land established by Qin Shi Huang. The arrest warrant of Wu Cheng’en and national laws ceased to be effective, so this young historian, who had almost lost everything, completely disappeared from public view.

“Even a scholarcrat can die for his integrity, how could common people refuse?”

At this point, due to the gradual spread of warfare, the history of the Xia dynasty began to show gaps. What exactly Wu Cheng’en experienced after fleeing from the capital is a question that can no longer be answered through official history. All that remains are the rural tales from all over the country and Wu Cheng’en’s three representative works: the essay collection Ru Zhong Diaries, the cultural history The History of Longevity, and his final work Journey to the West.

Between A Comic Tale of the Heavenly Palace and Journey to the West, there were two intermediary versions, both of which have been lost. Their existence has survived solely thanks to a samanera named Fazhi. Little is known about the origins of this novice. In Ru Zhong Diaries, there are only a few brief mentions of his background: “Met a little monk in Changyang, fourteen years old, eloquent. Took him as a scribe when the temple was destroyed.” The two wandered through the troubled continent, relying on each other. Wu Cheng’en provided protection, while Fazhi served as his assistant and also his sustenance.

According to Ru Zhong Diaries, after Wu Cheng’en left the court, he was deeply disillusioned with the state. He was not frustrated because his ambitions were unrecognized but rather because he saw no future. In Ru Zhong Diaries, he believed that history continually repeated itself, and even with the rise of a new dynasty, politics would remain politics. Since Qu Yuan, no intellectual, regardless of success or failure, has been able to escape this vicious cycle.

Meanwhile, the central government had lost control over many regions, leading to the rise of local warlords and rampant banditry. Both commoners and scholarcrats became equally dangerous, their complex relationships weaving a tangled web. In Ru Zhong Diaries, there are multiple instances of phrases like “Captured by Da Qin soldiers in the morning, fled by night, only to encounter scholar-bandits in no time. All companions perished in the crossing. Fazhi used a relic to bribe the chief, thus securing our freedom.” Such perils deepened Wu Cheng’en’s sense of despair. It is speculated that from the second year of the Tiānqǐ era, the appearance of more poems and fewer essays in Ru Zhong Diaries is closely related to this.

As the war progressed, the land began to undergo drastic changes. The self-propelled machines of the Da Qin empire fused scholarcrats with machinery. In the blood provided to sustain them, a substance called Le Tian38 was added, which allowed Da Qin to gain the upper hand in the war by using scholarcrats as the driving force for their machines. To reclaim lost territory, the army of Xia eventually abandoned their dignity and created almost identical war machines, using aging scholarcrats with weakened spirits as “fuel”. Although this strategy resolved both military disadvantages and the long-standing population structure issues, it also completely overturned the cultural spirit of the Chinese nation that had been in place since the Qin and Han dynasties.

In the fifth year of the Qìngyáng era, the Law of Heavenly Age was issued39, marking the continuous development of “metal-flesh integration” in handicrafts, with self-powered machines gradually taking over everything. The existing exploitation relationships in the social classes became magnified, and the distinctions between scholarcrats and commoners became increasingly blurred. Wu Cheng’en had already keenly sensed this trend at the beginning of the war and lamented in Ru Zhong Diaries: “Alas! Humanity has surrendered their spirits to metal and wood.”

The compilation of The History of Longevity further confirmed this lament. Wu Cheng’en realized that a new entity had emerged in the world, enslaving both scholarcrats and commoners alike. He and Fazhi engaged in many discussions about this new social structure, with their debates eventually focusing on the relationship between the two races.

What began as a mere distraction for Wu Cheng’en turned into an unexpected source of insight. In their discussions, Fazhi not only spoke in detail about the scholarcrats from a commoner’s perspective but also revealed how commoners interpreted the pursuit of immortality and the history they had jointly created. He believed that it was not only the scholarcrats who used their physical advantages to protect the commoners but that the commoners, in turn, provided sustenance for the scholarcrats with the blood and flesh that nature had bestowed upon them. Besides, whether between scholars or commoners, the offspring born through marriage would still be commoners. This, “The enjoyment of familial ties belongs to commoners. And as the foundation of the nation rests upon their status, in no way are they inferior.” In this symbiotic relationship, both sides possessed their own dignity, and should this balance be broken, disaster would inevitably follow. Guided by this understanding, Fazhi himself took great pride in his identity as a commoner and was deeply attached to it. During their time in exile, Wu Cheng’en had repeatedly tried to teach him the method of attaining immortality, but Fazhi always politely declined.

Fazhi’s insistence brought him great suffering, but it also helped Wu Cheng’en regain his spirits and redefine his life’s purpose. The war between Da Qin and Xia lasted a total of six years. In the third summer solstice, both Wu Cheng’en and Fazhi were captured by Xia soldiers and forcibly conscripted. This army was mainly infantry, following the strategy of Ouyang Ning, which allowed Wu Cheng’en and Fazhi to remain together. However, during a battle with the Da Qin army, the Xia troops encountered their self-propelled chariots. Fazhi, in an attempt to protect Wu Cheng’en, had his left arm severed by a sickle mounted on the chariot’s axle. The Xia troops were nearly annihilated, but the two escaped by falling into a river.

What happened afterward is recorded in three parts in Ru Zhong Diaries. The first said: “Not a living soul for a hundred miles. The fire was used to staunch the bleeding. His cries of pain shook the heavens.” The second wrote that Fazhi suffered from a high fever, and Wu Cheng’en tried to use the art of immortality to save him, but Fazhi adamantly refused, saying, “Even a scholarcrat can die for his integrity, how could common people refuse?” And he would never forgive Wu should he enforce it against his will. Wu had no choice but to rely on the faint memories of his family’s old business and used “aconite and datura to relieve the pain.”

The third record seems somewhat disconnected from the previous two and describes the pair’s experiences sometime after Fazhi’s recovery. Wu Cheng’en simply wrote, “Enlightenment dawned.” Fazhi, in an annotation, noted: “That night, the moon shone brightly. Master Wu, drunk, fell into the river. After being pulled ashore, he cried under the moon, as if something had stricken him.” This was not the cry of someone in despair—these three records actually hinted at a major shift in Wu Cheng’en’s cultural reflections. Fazhi’s motto, “Even a scholarcrat can die for his integrity, how could common people refuse?” revealed the truth. Under the watch of the heavens, all beings are equal. Enlightened by this realization, Wu Cheng’en finally set his life’s goal: “Humanity is ever-changing like flowing water, yet the ways of heaven are constant and eternal. Thus, I shall take history as its mirror, and write for the sake of every living being in the world.”

In the fourth year of the Jìngníng era, in May, he took up his long-forgotten The History of Longevity and began his journey once more.

The revised The History of Longevity differed significantly from the earlier Nanhuai volume. The most notable difference was that Wu Cheng’en now focused on the laws governing the evolution of the art of immortality. This made the task of writing history even more difficult, and the research alone consumed much of his energy, especially due to the difficulty of transportation. Eventually, even Ru Zhong’s Diaries had to be recorded by Fazhi40. The History of Longevity solidified Wu Cheng’en’s reputation as a historian, not only serving as a tool to restore his name but also providing critical reference material for the setting of Journey to the West. However, due to its vast scope, further elaboration on this work will not be given here.

The war ended. The era had forgotten the exiled historian. Emperor Guangwu ascended the throne, changing the dynastic name to Qìngyáng. As mentioned above, The Law of the Heavenly Age was promulgated, and for the first time, commoners were placed in charge of certain governmental departments. On one hand, the state actively encouraged the commoners to reproduce, while on the other, all prisoners and new elderly citizens over the age of two hundred were conscripted into the manufacturing industry. The Wu family survived the war, though Wu Rui drowned to death while on a business trip, escaping the fate of becoming fuel of the state. Song Yi, who also survived the war, moved to Yuzhou, where he lived in seclusion and devoted himself to studying folklore. He compiled numerous works on food, calendar systems, architecture, agriculture, clothing, legislation, and religion, and even created a famous spicy dish called Mao Xuewang41.

Wu Cheng’en knew none of this. According to Ru Zhong Diaries, during this period, he passed by the ruins of the Epang Palace twice before setting out for the Western Regions alone, never to be heard from again. Ru Zhong Diaries ends abruptly here. Over the course of decades, what the pair experienced, aside from a few brief mentions, remains unknown.

In the 21st year of the Qìngyáng era, a one-armed monk appeared at the market in Jiangning City. The monk, “carrying a box and walking alone”, stopped in front of the Tongwen Bookhall in the eastern part of the city and handed two scrolls to Shen Yancai, a storyteller who had gained some local fame. It was told that “the monk drank three bowls of water and left, leaving behind two volumes filled with mysteries and wonders.”

Shen spent the whole night reading, repeatedly slapping the table in admiration. After his first public storytelling, people swarmed to listen to the story at Tongwen Bookhall, reaching a point where the streets were practically empty. Shen Yancai’s fame grew alongside the popularity of this work, eventually securing him a place among the four greatest storytellers of the Later Xia dynasty.

The work was titled The Journey to the West.

His Last Journey to the West

The spread of Journey to the West was astonishingly rapid. By the spring of the 22nd year of the Qìngyáng era, it had become known throughout the empire, from the emperor down to the beggars—everyone knew of it.

The work employed a mix of vernacular and classical language, making it highly accessible to readers. Its circulation far surpassed that of the Four Books and Five Classics, second only to popular children’s rhymes like The Three Character Classic. The approachable language, however, was just a superficial reason for the book’s widespread popularity. More importantly, compared to Wu Cheng’en’s earlier works, Journey to the West significantly shed the personal biases of the author. Through the use of myth, epic, and strange tales, the novel recounts a grand and arduous pilgrimage in a tone that is nearly compassionate, yet calm and even humorous.

The book is divided into one hundred chapters. The first seven tell the story of the Monkey King, Sun Wukong—his training, his rebellion against fate, his havoc in the ocean, his appointment to office, his rebellion against Heaven, his battle against the celestial army, and his eventual defeat by the Buddha, who imprisons him under the Wuzhi Mountain for five hundred years. Chapters 8 through 13 describe the life-and-death trials of the monk Tang Sanzang, and chapters 13 to 22 detail how he encountered and recruited Sun Wukong, Zhu Wuneng (Pigsy), Sha Wujing (Sandy), and the White Dragon Horse. From then on, the four companions and their steed faced 81 tribulations before retrieving the sacred scriptures and attaining enlightenment.

Wu Cheng’en’s tumultuous life experiences are clearly reflected in the book. His early romantic fascination with the history of the Qin, Han, Wei, and Tang dynasties, his close friendship with Song Yi and Yuan Zhong during his youth (Chapter 36: When Mind Monkey is rectified, the nidānas cease; Smash through the side door to view the bright moon), his frustrations during his official career (Chapter 4: Appointed a BanHorse, could he be content? Named Equal to Heaven, he’s still not appeased), his disappointment with the state of the empire during times of chaos, and his contemplations on individual insignificance—all these personal experiences are scattered throughout the novel, hidden beneath the narrative of battles with demons and monsters, which often blend martial and intellectual combat. These elements resonated deeply with the intellectuals of his time, even becoming a reference in their own writings and arguments.

For the commoners, Journey to the West was different from many previous works—it did not assume any racial stance. Instead, it depicted a vibrant, grand vision of evolution through various methods of attaining immortality from across the world. The commoner’s desire, misunderstanding (especially in the belief that eating Tang Sanzang’s flesh would grant them immortality), hatred, exploitation, and acceptance of immortality, along with the elite’s indifference, oppression, greed, compassion, and eventual closeness to the commoners—these complex dynamics were thoroughly presented in the novel.

Additionally, unlike earlier works that focused on the primary characters, Journey to the West introduces a wealth of portrayals of the lower class and marginal figures. Many of these secondary characters are richly developed, yet during the slow and steady elimination of the court’s opposition parallel to the journey to the West, it is common that only the leaders survive, while the minions usually meet their demise, adding a strong sense of fate that resonated with readers. Those recovering from turbulent times but still swept along by the current of history could easily see themselves in the story.

If the Law of the Heavenly Age changed the political, economic, and social structures of the Xia dynasty and brought about a transformation in its spiritual landscape, then Journey to the West was certainly an important catalyst for this cultural shift. It further facilitated the integration of awareness between the upper and lower classes and served as a foundation for a large body of derivative works. Both scholars and commoners began to participate in this grand feast of cultural creation. During the Qìngyáng era, 396 novels, 177 plays, 40,650 poems, and 6,781 essays are known to have been produced as extensions of Journey to the West.

In terms of narrative literature alone, these derivations include character-driven stories (such as The Theogony of the Arhats, The White Dragon’s Tale of the Great Tang, and The Saga of Western Heavens—the last of which stands out for its local demon perspectives), plot-driven sequels (Journey to the West Continued and Another Journey by the Cleanser of the Altars), and thematic explorations (The Foreign History of Buddha Kingdom and The Soul of Metal and Wood). In addition, biographical stories based on Wu Cheng’en’s life (often centering on his experiences with Fazhi) were also popular. Journey to the West also contributed to the rise of textual criticism. Song Yi participated by writing The Landscape Survey of Journey to the West, in memory of his late friend.

Ten years ago, I humbly penned a book titled The Soul of Metal and Wood, focusing on the theme “Humanity have surrendered their spirits to metal and wood” as lamented by Wu. The book tells a fictionalized account of the Qin-Xia warfare. During the war, both sides pooled their national strength, building enormous mechanized cities comparable to the Wuzhi Mountain. The warfare between armies thus became battles between cities.

Soon after the third edition of my book went out, the Wu family undertook the grand task of compiling their family history. I was fortunate enough to receive an invitation to the event and had the honor of speaking with the elders of the Wu clan. During these conversations, I learned of their plans to compile The Complete Wu Cheng’en Omnibus. Last night, that monumental work was finally sent to the press. It has been 27 years since the injustice was rectified. Heaven has shown its mercy at last, and it has been such a long and melodious journey.

The Complete Wu Cheng’en Omnibus combines various historical sources, reconstructing and compiling the nine surviving versions of Journey to the West. The responsibility of writing the introduction fell upon my shoulders. Thus, with utmost reverence for Master Wu, I decided to chronicle his life and recount the connections between his life’s journey and his creations, to demonstrate the spirit behind Journey to the West. After reading this brief history, readers will better understand how Wu’s experience and thoughts influenced his writings.

As I reached the end of this introduction, I stood beneath the ancestral hall of the Wu family. The sun had just risen, and a Buddha’s glory shone all around. The officiant, bathed in morning light, faced the east, burning incense in worship, while the ashes drifted westward with the chant of sutras. The sight of Buddha’s radiance sparked vivid memories. It was here, 27 years ago, that the long-lived members of this ancient family—spanning three dynasties and nearly a thousand years—gathered. Beneath the many-tiered eaves, ancestors from far and wide, from great-grandparents to more distant relations, sat upright in the seats prepared for them. As the venerable elders of successive dynasties, they received offerings, songs of praise, and homage from their descendants, using voices both young and old to bless the future generations of their clan.

The seat of Master Wu was empty, yet his blessing touched every person present. Now, the elders have returned to their mountain retreats, and the relatives have scattered back to various parts of the central plains. Yet, the traces of those who have passed still flow through the rivers and mountains, echoing in the streets and alleys, in the ink of the historians, in the sighs of storytellers, and in the songs of children, becoming eternal.

At the end of Journey to the West, the four disciples return the scriptures to Chang’an and then head once more to Tianzhu, achieving enlightenment in the radiant Buddha’s light. Today, as I gaze upon this vast, misty scene, I find myself overwhelmed with emotion and nearly at a loss for words. Therefore, I conclude this introduction by quoting the finale of Journey to the West, as a humble tribute to Master Ru Zhong:

• In every world where Buddhas dwell,
• May these merits adorn their pure lands.
• To repay the fourfold kindness from above,
• And to relieve the suffering in the three paths below.
• If any see and hear of this,
• May they all aspire to the Bodhi mind,
• To be born together in the land of bliss,
• And complete this life of virtue.
• All the Buddhas of past, present, and future in all the world,
• The various Honored Bodhisattvas and Mahāsattvas,
• Mahā-prajñā-pāramitā!

সম্পাদকের পাদটীকা:

সায়েন্স ফিকশনের জগতে অনেকরকমই পরীক্ষানিরীক্ষা চলছে। শুধু গল্প-উপন্যাস-কমিকস-সিনেমার মধ্যে সায়েন্স ফিকশন আর ফ্যান্টাসিকে বেঁধে রাখা যাচ্ছে না। কাজ চলছে আরও নানা ধরনের মাধ্যম যেমন খবর, নিবন্ধ, সমালোচনা, গবেষণাপত্র এরকম প্রথাগত নন-ফিকশনের সঙ্গে স্পেকুলেটিভ ফিকশনকে জড়িয়ে কাজ। যখন কল্পবিশ্বের তরফ থেকে চিনা সায়েন্স ফিকশন ফ্যান ও অ্যাক্টিভিস্ট আর্থার লিউয়ের কাছে একটি লেখা দেওয়ার অনুরোধ করা হয়, তখন প্রথমে ঠিক ছিল আর্থার চিনা স্পেকুলেটিভ ফিকশনের উপর একটি প্রবন্ধ পাঠাবেন। আর্থার পরে জানান একটি অন্যরকম গল্প উনি পাঠাচ্ছেন আমাদের পড়ার জন্যে। লেখাটি আসলে Wu Cheng’en-এর Journey to the West নামের প্রখ্যাত গল্পটি নিয়ে লেখা একটি অলটারনেট হিস্ট্রির গল্প। কিন্তু গল্পটি লেখা হয়েছে একটি বইয়ের ভূমিকার আকারে। পুরো লেখাটিতে যোগ করা হয়েছে অসংখ্য টীকা এবং ঐতিহাসিক ঘটনাবলী যা এই পরীক্ষামূলক লেখাটিকে একটি অন্য মাত্রা দিয়েছে। অনেকেই হয়তো পড়তে গেলে লেখাটিকে একটি কঠোর ঐতিহাসিক প্রবন্ধ বলেই ভাববেন। পাঠকের সুবিধার জন্যে জানাই লেখাটির মূল লেখক Tu Sifan আসলে Tsinghua illusion association-এর ছদ্মনাম। লেখাটি এই সায়েন্স ফিকশন ক্লাবের সদস্যরা অনেকে মিলে তৈরি করেছিলেন। প্রথমে মনে করা হয়েছিল গল্পটি বাংলায় অনুবাদ করার চেষ্টা করা হবে। কিন্তু বাংলায় হয়তো এই ঐতিহাসিক বর্ণনা আর অ্যাকাডেমিক ভাষার অনুবাদ তেমন গ্রহণযোগ্য হবে না মনে করে মূল ইংরেজিতেই লেখাটি রাখা হল। লেখাটি অনুবাদ করার জন্যে আর্থারকে সম্পাদকমণ্ডলীর তরফ থেকে অনেক ধন্যবাদ। আশা করি বাংলাতেও কল্পবিজ্ঞান ও ফ্যান্টাসি নিয়ে এমন নতুন কাজ আমরা আগামী দিনে দেখতে পাবো।

Tags: Arthur liu, English Section, Thu Sifan, নবম বর্ষ প্রথম সংখ্যা